French Revolution

Although historians are agreed that the French Revolution started in 1789 they are divided on the end date. A few histories stop in 1795 with the creation of the Directory, some stop in 1799 with the creation of the Consulate, while many more stop in 1802 when Napoleon Bonaparte became Consul for Life or 1804 when he became Emperor. A rare few continue to the restoration of the monarchy in 1814. Some prefer 1802 as the year.

Causes behind the French Revolution

Since the reign of Louis XIV (14th), France had spent a fortune on wars in Europe and in colonial regions including North America, Canada and India, primarily against the British during the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763) and American War of Independence (1775-1783). Furthermore the collapse of the “The Mississippi Company” required King Louis XV and the French Treasury to repay extensive debts from its liquidation. In short, by 1788, France was deeply in debt.

1788 Events

King Louis XVI (16th) was the reigning monarch and was married to Austrian Marie Antoinette. They had four children and lived at the Palace of Versailles built by Louis XIV (14th). The king had two brothers, the Comte de Provence (Louis XVIII) and the Comte d’Artois (Charles X).Much of the French farming land was owned either by the aristocracy or the clergy. The aristocracy also held many privileges, including sole right to command army regiments and hold positions as ambassadors. They were also excused from direct taxation (“taille”) and the cost of maintaining roads and military transportation.

To repay the government debt, the Director General Of Finance (Alexandre de Calonne) submitted a proposal to raise a new land tax on the aristocracy, clergy and middle classes. This proposal was dismissed by the landowners and Calonne was replaced by Archbishop Brienne. Brienne proposed similar taxation proposals and these were also rejected by regional parliaments. The King suppressed the powers of these regional parliaments but this resulted in widespread rioting throughout the country.To resolve the taxation crisis, the King decided to recall the Estates General, an assembly of the aristocracy, clergy and middle classes (known as the Third Estate). The Estates General was to be formed the following year in 1789 though there were already disputes over how the votes would be counted.

Elections of candidates for the three voting blocks of The Estates General began in January. After elections, the members of the Estate General met the King at Versailles in May 1789. Following unsuccessful negotiations between the three groups, the Third Estate made successful attempts at gathering support for their proposals from members of the clergy. With support from members of the clergy, the Third Estate voted to re-title themselves as the “National Assembly”. They gathered in the Tennis Courts at Versailles and signed an oath to form a new constitution and national government representing all the people of the country. This was known as the “Tennis Court Oath”.Several days later, the King met with the “National Assembly” and demanded that they reform into their original three groupings. The members of the “National Assembly” refused to follow the King’s orders and began forming a new national constitution. Meanwhile, the King prepared his military forces to suppress the rebellion. But as troops gathered in larger numbers around Paris, the general population grew nervous and rebellious at the King’s actions. This was against a background of increasing bread prices and plummeting values in the currency and treasury notes. Parisian members of the National Assembly created a new city authority at the Hotel de Ville and formed a fledging National Guard to maintain public order. On July 14 mobs gathered to find weapons in the city to arm themselves with.The crowd’s search for weapons and ammunition in Paris on July 14 came to head when they advanced towards the Bastille. This was a moated fortress tower that had for many years been used as a prison for common criminals and political prisoners held at the will of the King. The Bastille was defended by a small band of retired soldiers’ invalides and Royal Swiss Guards though they had a good supply of cannons and ammunition. In spite of this they were reluctant to fire upon the people unless fired upon but the crowd misunderstood their intentions and began assaulting the Bastille. Following the fall of the Bastille, the King soon realised that there was little he could do to prevent the revolution taking place and he met the National Assembly at the Hotel de Ville on July 16. Here he accepted the tricolour cockade (blue/ white/ red – one colour for each member of the Estate General) that now symbolically represented the revolution.

Yet out in the regions, rumours of counter-revolution by the King and aristocracy, food shortages and profiteering led to “The Great Fear”. This resulted in numerous hoarders and aristocracy either being killed or evicted from their lands by violent civilian mobs seeking to establish their own justice. In effect, the rule of law had been replaced by vigilantes.In September the National Assembly replaced hundreds of years of feudal rule with the production of the Declaration of The Rights of Man and Citizen. On October 1 a banquet held at the Opera House at Versailles by the King’s returning Flanders regiment led to a feeling of resentment by the hungry civilians of Paris. A small army of Parisian women formed at the Hotel de Ville and then pressed on to Versailles. When they reached the palace they invaded the state rooms and were eventually promised bread by the King in person. Soon joined by a larger army of National Guard, the women refreshed their assault on the palace and the Queen’s bed chamber in the early hours of the morning. Order was restored by the National Guard and the King submitted to demands to move the Royal household from Versailles to the Tuileres in the centre of Paris. Though this ensured their safety from the mob, it also enabled the government to closely guard and monitor the royal activities.

The situation stabilised as the King showed signs of becoming more accepting of government by the people. The first anniversary of the revolution was celebrated at the Champ de Mars.

In July the National Assembly introduced The Civil Constitution of the Clergy. This legislation introduced the election of members of French clergy instead of selection by Papal authority. Clergy were allowed to keep their posts up to the point where the local election took place. But the Pope denounced this move and refused to recognise clergy elected in this manner. With advice from the Pope, the King refused to accept Holy Communion from any other priest than one appointed by Rome. This led to scene of protests by the public when the King was to be received at Saint Cloud.The King and Queen now planned their escape from the country. On June 20, 1791, the royal family escaped from the Tuileries with the help of a sympathetic accomplice. They travelled through the night by horse and carriage towards the eastern French border where they would be escorted by cavalry. But their escape had been discovered that night and they were eventually apprehended at Varennes-en-Argonne, near Verdun, and returned to captivity at the Tuileries.Champ de Mars where anniversary festival took place in 1791 was also the year in which the first signs of discord between the conservative members of the revolution and the supporters of the left took place in the new Legislative Assembly. A petition raised by the conservative members of the Cordeliers Club led to a riot in the Champ de Mars on July 17. This was suppressed by Lafayette and National Guards but resulted in the death of over 50 protestors.

Amongst an atmosphere of accusations and recrimination, the assembly finds solidarity in declaring war on it’s external enemies, Austria and Prussia, though the French Army is ill-prepared for the conflict. Through lack of political cohesion, the Legislative Assembly loses control of the country. The citizens begin to arm themselves and call for the abdication of the King. On August 9 an armed mob assaults the Tuileries where the royal family is residing, guarded by Swiss guardsmen. Though the royal family was taken under the protection of the government, hundreds of palace guards and staff are massacred.

Danton becomes Minister of Justice. There is continued widespread fear of counter-revolutionaries and conspirators as foreign armies breach France’s national boundaries. In September, thousands of prisoners held in gaols around the country are tried, mutilated and executed in the belief that they are the enemies of the Republic.The French Army defeats the Prussian Army at Valmy on September 20, 1792. The newly elected National Convention abolishes the monarchy and declares 1792 as the first year of the French Republic. Political disputes grow between the right (Girondions) and the left (Montagnards) in the Convention.

The King is placed on trial, found guilty and sentenced to die on January 21, 1793. He was guillotined in the Place de la Revolution (now Place de Concorde). It took more than one attempt to severe his head from his body.Civil war breaks about in the province of Vendee. The Revolutionary Tribunal and Committee of Public Safety are formed. Fears of internal rebellion grow and the foreign armies of Austria, Prussia, Spain and England now threaten every bolder of the country.Maximillian Robespierre takes control of the Committee of Public Safety. Hero of the Jacobin Club (supporters of the left), Marat is assassinated by Charlotte Corday, sympathizer of the federalists and Girondions. The National Convention is split between federalists, supporters of Danton, enrages and Hebertists. By September a decree is issued for greater pursuit of counter revolutionary suspects including nobility, emigrants, federalists and profiteers. The Queen, Marie Antoinette, is guillotined on October 16. Many Girondions in the National Convention are tried, found guilty and executed. In order to retain political control, Robespierre is successful in accusing his political rivals and sentencing them for execution. Executions of counter revolutionary suspects become common place and turns into a regular public attraction. This becomes known as The Great Terror.

Danton is accused of anti-Republican sympathies by Robespierre and is guillotined in April. The execution of political opponents and nobility continues into July however, French victories on the battlefield reduce the fear of invasion. Members of the government grow to resent Robespierre’s beliefs and actions. Eventually a plot brews to remove him from office and put him on trial as a tyrant. Robespierre and his supporters are found guilty and executed. Reprisals against supporters of the left accelerate.The political vacuum is filled by more moderate politicians. An attempt to assault the National Convention by an armed mob of sans culottes (labourers without trousers) fails and a semblance of order was restored by the National Guard.

An attempt by royalist armies to invade France fails and the prisoners are executed en masse. Vicious suppression of royalist and federalist supporters takes place throughout the country. A new constitution is written creating two new bodies, the Council of 500 and The Council of Ancients.They are further armed attempts by both royalist and Paris sections (sans culottes) to defeat the Republican government. Napoleon Bona-parte takes command of the National Guards defending Paris and successfully defends the government from an assault by an army of sans culottes.

The Republican government survives but the country is in a worse financial state than at the beginning of the revolution and suffering from high inflation. There is still a huge gap between the living standards of the poor and the wealthy bourgeoisie (middle classes).Napoleon Bonaparte defeats Italian armies in Northern Italy and invades Egypt and defeats both the Egyptian and Turkish armies. However, his transport ships are dealt a severe blow by the Lord Nelson and the Royal Navy at the Battle of The Nile.

Could King Louis XVI have prevented the Revolution and kept his head and his throne? Meanwhile, the other monarchs of Europe were preparing to invade France and quash the revolution. The King and Queen made a daring night escape from their captors and fled to the border in disguise, racing from village to village to avoid their pursuers. Robespierre executed his political rivals one by one until he himself was taken to the guillotine.